HEYGOW

Twenty-four topics out of fifty-nine, chosen because exam questions are built out of them. Every link goes to the same cards as the full course - this is an order to work in, not a smaller version.

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1. What a noun needs

• Countable and uncountable20An uncountable noun takes much and little, never many, few or a plural -s.
• a, an and the22A introduces, the points back. An instrument takes the; a sport and a means of transport take none.

2. What the verb decides

• Verbs that take an object12These verbs take the object directly. Not discuss about, not marry with.
• Reporting what was said14A that-clause carries the whole of what was said or thought; that is often dropped.
• The passive20English reaches for the passive far more often than Japanese does, especially when the doer does not matter.

3. A verb doing another word's job

• The -ing form as a noun18The -ing form is a noun here. Some verbs take only this, never the to-form.
• to describing and explaining18Here the to-form explains a noun or the whole sentence: work to finish, came here to ask.
• Participle clauses14A clause folds into a participle at the front. What it means - when, because, although - is left to the listener.

4. Description behind the noun

• that, and leaving it out16That serves both people and things, and disappears when it is the object of the clause.
• where, when, why, how16Where, when and why replace a preposition and which together: the town in which becomes where.
• With a comma16With a comma the clause adds information; without one it narrows down which. And it can point back at a whole sentence.

5. Time, and stepping away from it

• The present perfect16Not a past tense: a present statement about a result that still stands.
• Other perfect forms16Had done sets one past event before another; will have done looks back from a future point.
• If and wishes18Step the tense back one and the sentence steps away from reality. That is the whole mechanism.
• Reporting and matching tenses12When the reporting verb is past, the verb inside steps back too - unless it is still true.

6. The speaker's stance

• must and have to14Must is the speaker's own certainty; have to is a rule from outside.
• should, ought to, shall14Should advises; should have says the advice came too late.
• Phrases that work like modals14These phrases do a modal's work but can be put into any tense, which a modal cannot.

7. Comparing, denying, stressing

• As ... as16as ... as holds two things level. The word between the two as is the plain form.
• Comparatives18Short words take -er, long words take more, and much or far strengthens the gap.
• Saying no18Where not lands decides the meaning: not everyone agreed is not the same as nobody agreed.
• Inversion16A negative or a restriction at the front pulls the auxiliary in front of the subject.
• Putting the weight on one part14It is ... that lifts one part out and makes it the point of the sentence.
• Leaving words out16English drops what has just been said and leaves only the auxiliary: and so is she, and neither do I.